4-113. Once the animal is skinned, break it down into usable-size pieces. This will allow more options for transporting, cooking, and preserving. Butchering involves removing the muscle tissue from the skeletal structure of the animal. Trim off the connective tissue, trim off the fat (save for consumption), and cut the flesh into smaller pieces similar to what would be seen in a butcher shop. The meat can be cut into steaks, roasts, stew meat cubes, and thin slices for drying and smoking.
Skinning Mammals
4-114. Once a mammal has been procured, it will need to be skinned. There are two general ways to skin a mammal—the big game method and the glove skinning method.
Big Game
4-115. When the mammal is a large animal, the big game skinning method should be used. The first step in skinning is to turn the animal on its back and, with a sharp knife, cut through the skin on a straight line from the tail bone to a point under its neck as illustrated in figure 4-19 on page 4-30. In making this cut, pass around the anus and, with great care, press the skin open until the first two fingers can be inserted between the skin and the thin membrane enclosing the entrails. When the fingers can be forced forward, place the blade of the knife between the fingers, blade up, with the knife held firmly. While forcing the fingers forward, palm upward, follow with the knife blade, cutting the skin but not cutting the membrane.
4-116. If the animal is a male, cut the skin parallel to, but not touching, the penis. If the tube leading from the bladder is accidentally cut, a messy job and unclean meat will result. If the gall or urine bladders are broken, washing will help clean the meat. Otherwise, it is best not to wash the meat but to allow it to form a protective glaze. On reaching the ribs, it is no longer possible to force the fingers forward, because the skin adheres more strongly to flesh and bone. Furthermore, care is no longer necessary. The cut to point C (in figure 4-19 on page 4-30) can be quickly completed by alternately forcing the knife under the skin and lifting it.
4-117. With the central cut completed, make side cuts consisting of incisions through the skin, running from the central cut up the inside of each leg to the knee and hock joints. Make cuts around the front legs just above the knees and around the hind legs above the hocks. Make the final cross cut at point C (in figure 4-19), and then cut completely around the neck and in back of the ears. Once the cuts are complete, the skinning process can begin. After skinning down the animal’s side as far as possible, roll the carcass on its side to skin the back. Then spread out the loose skin to prevent the meat from touching the ground and turn the animal on the skinned side. Follow the same procedure on the opposite side until the skin is free. In opening the membrane which encloses the entrails, follow the same procedure used in cutting the skin by using the fingers of one hand as a guard for the knife and separating the intestines from the membrane. This thin membrane along the ribs and sides can be cut away for a better view.
4-118. Be careful to avoid cutting the intestines or bladder. The large intestine passes through an aperture in the pelvis. Using a knife, separate this tube from the bone surrounding it. Tie a knot in the bladder tube to prevent the escape of urine. With these steps complete, the entrails can be easily disengaged from the back and removed from the carcass. After gutting is completed, it may be advisable to hang the animal.
Note. If the animal is hot, gut the animal before skinning it.
4-119. The intestines of a well-conditioned animal are covered with a lace-like layer of fat which can be lifted off and placed on nearby bushes to dry for later use. The gall bladder which is attached to the liver of some animals should be carefully removed. If it ruptures, the bile will taint anything it touches. Clean the knife if necessary. The kidneys are imbedded in the back, forward of the pelvis, and are covered with fat. Running forward from the kidneys on each side of the backbone are two long strips of chop meat or muscle called tenderloin and/or back strap. Eat this after the liver, heart, and kidneys as it is usually very tender. Edible meat can also be removed from the head, brisket, ribs, backbone, and pelvis.
4-120. Large animals should be quartered. To do this, cut down between the first and second rib and then sever the backbone with an axe or machete. Cut through the brisket of the front half and then chop lengthwise through the backbone to produce the front quarters. On the rear half, cut through the pelvic bone and lengthwise through the backbone. To make the load lighter and easier to transport, the bones can be removed with a knife. Butchering is the final step and is simplified for survival purposes. The main purpose is to cut the meat in manageable-sized portions.
Small-Game
4-121. Glove skinning is performed on small game. The initial cuts are made down the insides of the back legs. The skin is then peeled back so that the hindquarters are bare and the tail is severed. To remove the remaining skin, pull it down over the body in much the same manner a pullover sweater is removed. Sever the head and front feet to remove the skin from the body. To remove the internal organs, make a cut into the abdominal cavity without puncturing the organs. This cut must run from the anus to the neck. There are muscles that connect the internal organs to the trunk, and they must be severed to allow the viscera to be removed.
4-122. If the isolated person does not have a knife and only access to rudimentary tools like a sharp rock or dull piece of metal, there is a method of skinning sometimes referred to as the pants and shirt method of skinning. This method is simple and works very well on small to medium size game. The isolated person will separate the skin around the midline of the animal by making an incision around the animal with a cutting implement or by tearing it with their hands. The isolated person will then pull the top and bottom pieces of skin in the opposite direction until they are fully removed from the carcass. This method is very fast and can be completed from a concealed position when needed.
Birds
4-123. Birds provide a concentrated form of protein and amino acids. Isolated persons eating birds will benefit by their bodies being able to get energy and repair itself from the protein. As with all wild animals, understanding the birds’ habits will offer a better chance of catching them. Some species of bird can be captured from their roost at night by hand. During the nesting season, some species will not leave the nest even when approached.
4-124. Birds tend to have regular flyways going from the roost to a feeding area, to water, and so forth. Careful observation should reveal where these flyways are and indicate good areas for catching birds in nets stretched across the flyways. A small gill net on a wooden frame with a disjointed stick for a trigger can also be used. Birds can be caught on baited fishhooks or with simple loop snares. Roosting sites and waterholes are some of the most promising areas for trapping and snaring. See figure 4-20 on page 4-32.
4-125. An Ojibwa bird pole is a snare that has been used by Native Americans for centuries. To be effective, it should be placed in a relatively open area away from tall trees. For best results, pick a spot near feeding areas, dusting areas, or watering holes. Cut a pole 6 to 7 feet long and trim away all limbs and foliage.
4-126. Do not use resinous wood such as pine. Sharpen the upper end to a point, and then drill a small-diameter hole 2 to 3 inches down from the top. Cut a small stick 4 to 6 inches long and shape one end so that it will almost fit into the hole. This is the perch. Plant the long pole in the ground with the pointed end up. Tie a small weight, about equal to the weight of the targeted species, to a length of cordage. Pass the free end of the cordage through the hole and tie a slip noose that covers the perch. Tie a single overhand knot in the cordage and place the perch against the hole. Allow the cordage to slip through the hole until the overhand knot rests against the pole and the top of the perch. The knot must be smaller than the hole, enabling the knot to slip through the hole.
4-127. The tension of the overhand knot against the pole and perch will hold the perch in position. Spread the noose over the perch, ensuring that it covers the perch and drapes over on both sides. Most birds prefer to rest on something above ground and will land on the perch. As soon as the bird lands, the perch will fall, releasing the overhand knot and allowing the weight to drop. The noose will tighten around the bird’s feet, capturing it. If the weight is too heavy, it will cut off the bird’s feet, allowing it to escape. Another variation would be to use spring tension such as a tree branch in place of the weight (see figure 4-21 on page 33).
4-128. Butchering birds is done by first plucking the bird to remove its feathers. The bird can be placed in a container of boiling water to loosen the feathers and make it easier to pluck. The bird can also be skinned to remove the feathers, but skinning removes some of the bird’s nutritional value. After plucking or skinning the bird, open up the body cavity and remove the entrails, saving the heart and liver. Most of the usable meat from a bird comes from the breast.
4-129. For larger birds, the legs and thighs can produce a fair amount of meat. Next, cut off the feet. With a knife or improvised tool, cut in between the joints of the bird to separate the skeletal structure. Because of the fragility of a bird’s muscle and skeletal structure, most of it can be processed with just the hands and no tools.
4-130. Isolated persons should make sure to wash their hands and any tools after working with raw bird meat to avoid the transfer of bacteria. It is best to leave the meat on the bone for preparation. Most birds except sea birds should be cooked with their skin left on. Sea birds will have improved taste if the oily skin is removed before cooking. Carrion eating birds, such as vultures, must be boiled for at least 20 minutes to kill parasites before further cooking and eating. Cooking techniques are the same as with other game animals.
4-131. Bird meat can be boiled, baked, roasted, and fried. Bird meat should be fully cooked to eliminate any chance of contracting food-borne illnesses. Preservation methods are the same as other meat. If in or near the ocean, the meat can be placed in a saltwater bath to preserve it. Wash the salt off the meat before cooking.
Insects
4-132. The most abundant and easily caught life forms on earth are insects. Many insects provide 65 to 80 percent protein compared to only 20 percent for beef. This makes insects an important source of nutrition for the isolated person. The problem with insects is that they have to be gathered in large numbers to get the same amount of protein as you would from a rabbit or other piece of meat. The praying mantis for example, contains 58 percent protein, 12 percent fat, 3 percent ash, vitamin B complex, and vitamin A. The insect’s outer skeleton contains a compound of sugars and amino acids.
4-133. Insects to avoid include all adults that bite or sting and hairy or brightly colored insects. Hairy caterpillars and insects that have a pungent odor should also be avoided as well as spiders and common disease carriers such as ticks, flies, and mosquitoes.
4-134. Ants such as the white ant, the carpenter ant, and the honey ant are edible and were a staple in many native cultures. Termites, bee larvae, locusts, dragonflies, bumblebees, cockroaches, locust grasshoppers, golden June beetles, crickets, wasp larvae, and silkworm’s larvae are all used for food. Flying insects can be attracted to a light source. If the isolated person places a piece of material in front of the light source with a vessel of water below it, the flying insects will fly into the material and some will fall into the water, remaining for collection and consumption.
4-135. Rotting logs lying on the ground are excellent places to look for a variety of insects including ants, termites, beetles, and grubs. Also, do not overlook nests on or in the ground. Grassy areas, such as fields, are good areas to search because the insects are easily seen. Stones, boards, or other materials lying on the ground provide insects with good nesting sites. Worms are an excellent protein source. They can be found in humus soil and in the root ball of grass clumps, or watch for them after rain on the ground’s surface. To prepare worms for eating, place them in a bath of clear potable water. In 15 minutes, the worms will purge themselves and wash themselves out, after which they can be eaten raw.
4-136. Preparation of insects involves removing any stinging apparatus from the insect before consuming. Also, remove their legs, wings, and heads before eating them. Insects with hard outer shells will have parasites and should be fully cooked before consumption. Insects can be cooked using all available cooking methods. Many insects can be preserved for long periods by keeping them alive. Other forms of food preservation are appropriate as well.
4-137. Insects can be cooked by roasting, baking, frying, and boiling. They can be added to other foods such as plants and other meat, making a stew. This will provide needed protein while avoiding any potential aversion to eating insects. Earthworms are high in protein and should be prepared as follows: soak them in water for a day, squeeze all of the guts to eliminate waste products, and clean them. Then cook them by roasting, baking, frying, or boiling.
Reptiles
4-138. Reptiles are a good protein source and relatively easy to catch. Reptiles can be found moving across open ground. They can be procured using a long, forked stick. Place the stick behind the reptile’s head to immobilize its ability to strike and inject the isolated person with venom. Isolated persons should then cut off the head about one to two inches from the end to prevent accidental envenomation from the venom sacs left in the snake’s head. Snakes have been known to retain a bite reflex for up to 24 hours after the head is removed. Bury the head to prevent it from accidentally being stepped on at a later time. Cut up the belly of the snake and remove the innards. Peel the skin back and pull the skin in one hand and the body of the snake in the other until the skin is removed (see figure 4-22). Traps with bait may also prove useful in gathering reptiles.
4-139. Thorough cooking and hand washing is imperative with reptiles. All reptiles are considered carriers of salmonella, which exists naturally on their skin. Turtles and snakes are especially known to infect man. Salmonella can be deadly to an isolated person in an undernourished state and with a weak immune system. Cook food thoroughly and be especially fastidious in washing hands after handling any reptile.
4-140. Lizards are plentiful in most parts of the world. They have dry, scaly skin and five toes on each foot. The only venomous ones are the Gila monster and the Mexican bearded lizard. Care must be taken when handling and preparing the iguana and the monitor lizard, as they commonly harbor the salmonella bacteria in their mouth and teeth. The tail meat is the best tasting and easiest to prepare.
4-141. Turtles are a very good source of meat. There are actually seven different flavors of meat in each snapping turtle. Most turtle meat comes from the front and rear shoulder area, although a large turtle may have some on its neck. The box turtle is a commonly encountered turtle that should not be eaten. It feeds on poisonous mushrooms and may build up a highly toxic poison in its flesh. Cooking does not destroy this toxin. Also avoid the hawksbill turtle found in the Atlantic Ocean, because of its poisonous thorax gland (see figure 4-23).
4-142. Cook reptiles in the same manner as other small game using all cooking methods available. Isolated persons should concentrate on eating the fleshy parts of the reptile. For example, a turtle has meat near its legs and where the body meets the fins, neck, and tail. These areas can be fried or cooked in a stew. All meat should be thoroughly cooked. Reptile eggs can also be eaten. Reptiles can be kept alive to preserve them or use other methods of preservation previously discussed to keep them fresh for consumption.
Amphibians
4-143. Frogs are easily found around bodies of fresh water. Frogs seldom move from the safety of the water’s edge. At the first sign of danger, they plunge into the water and bury themselves in the mud and debris. Frogs are characterized by smooth, moist skin. There are few poisonous species of frogs. Avoid any brightly colored frog or one that has a distinct “X” mark on its back as well as all tree frogs. Do not confuse toads with frogs. Toads may be recognized by their dry, “warty” or bumpy skin. They are usually found on land in drier environments.
4-144. Several species of toads secrete a poisonous substance through their skin as a defense against attack. Therefore, to avoid poisoning, do not handle or eat toads. Do not eat salamanders; only about 25 percent of all salamanders are edible, so it is not worth the risk of possibly selecting a poisonous variety. Salamanders are found around the water. They are characterized by smooth, moist skin and have only four toes on each foot. Amphibians provide a good source of protein.
4-145. A frog gig, which is a long spear with several tines resembling a pitchfork on the end, can be used to spear an amphibian at the water’s edge. Most of the meat content from frogs will come from their legs. Amphibians should be cooked like any other small game; roasting on a stick works well. The meat should be thoroughly cooked. Preservation of amphibians as food is the same as stated for other meat (see figure 4-24, page 4-36).
Fish
4-146. Fish represent a good source of protein and fat. They offer some distinct advantage in that they are usually more abundant than mammal wildlife, and the methods to procure them are mostly silent. To be successful at catching fish, their habits must be known. For instance, fish tend to feed heavily before a storm. Fish are not likely to feed after a storm when the water is muddy and swollen. Light often attracts fish at night.
4-147. When there is a heavy current fish rest in places where there is an eddy, such as near rocks. Fish also gather where there are deep pools, under overhanging brush, and in and around submerged foliage, logs, or other objects that offer them shelter. There are no poisonous freshwater fish. However, the catfish species has sharp, needlelike protrusions on its dorsal fins and barbels. These can inflict painful puncture wounds that quickly become infected.
4-148. Cook all freshwater fish to kill parasites. As a precaution, also cook saltwater fish caught within a reef or within the influence of a freshwater source. Any marine life obtained farther out in the sea will not contain parasites because of the saltwater environment. These may be safely eaten raw.
4-149. Most fish encountered are edible. However, the organs of some species are always poisonous to man; other fish can become toxic because of elements in their diets. Ciguatera is a form of human poisoning caused by the consumption of subtropical and tropical marine fish, which have accumulated naturally occurring toxins through their diet. These toxins build up in the fish’s tissues. The toxins are known to originate from several algae species that are common to ciguatera-endemic regions in the lower latitudes. Cooking does not eliminate the toxins; neither does drying, smoking, or marinating.
4-150. Marine fish most commonly implicated in ciguatera poisoning include barracudas, jacks, mackerel, triggerfish, snappers, and groupers. Many other species of warm water fishes harbor ciguatera toxins. The occurrence of toxic fish is sporadic and not all fish of a given species or from a given locality will be toxic. Other examples of poisonous saltwater fish are the porcupine fish, the cowfish, the thorn fish, the oil fish, and the puffer fish (see figure 4-25 on page 4-37).
Fishing Devices
4-151. Isolated persons can make fishhooks, nets, and traps. Field-expedient fishhooks can be made from pins, needles, wire, small nails, or any piece of metal (see figure 4-26). Wood, bones, coconut shells, thorns, flint, seashells, tortoise shells, or a combination of these items can also be used.
Wooden Hook
4-152. To make a wooden hook, cut a piece of hardwood about 1 inch long and about 1/4 inch in diameter to form the shank. Cut a notch in one end in which to place the point. Place the point (a piece of bone, wire, or nail) in the notch. Hold the point in the notch and tie it securely so that it does not move out of position. This is a large hook; to make smaller hooks, use smaller material.
Gorge or Skewer
4-153. A gorge or skewer is a small shaft of wood, bone, metal, or other material. It is sharp on both ends and notched in the middle where cordage is tied. Bait the gorge by placing a piece of bait on it lengthwise. When the fish swallows the bait, it also swallows the gorge. If isolated persons are tending the fishing line when the fish bites, they should not attempt to pull on the line to set the hook as they would with a conventional hook. Allow the fish to swallow the bait to get the gorge as far down its throat as possible before the gorge sets itself.
Stakeout
4-154. A stakeout is a fishing device that can be used in a non-permissive environment. To construct a stakeout, drive two supple saplings into the bottom of the lake, pond, or stream with their tops just below the water’s surface. Tie a cord between them just slightly below the surface. Tie two short cords with hooks or gorges to this cord, ensuring that they cannot wrap around the poles or each other. They should also not slip along the long cord. Bait the hooks or gorges (see figure 4-27).
Gill Net
4-155. If a gill net is not available, isolated persons can make one using parachute suspension line or similar material (see figure 4-28 on page 4-39). Remove the core lines from the suspension line and tie the casing between two trees. Attach several core lines to the casing by doubling them over and tying them with Prusik knots or girth hitches. These lines should be six times the desired depth of the net (for example, a 6-foot piece of string girth-hitched over the casing will yield two 3-foot pieces, which after completing the net, will provide a 1-foot deep net).
4-156. The length of the desired net and the size of the mesh determine the number of core lines used and the space between them. The recommended size of the spaces in the net mesh is about 1 inch square. Starting at one end of the casing, tie the second and the third core lines together using an overhand knot. Then tie the fourth and fifth, sixth and seventh, and so on, until the last core line is reached. All core lines should now be tied in pairs with a single core line hanging at each end. Start the second row with the first core line, tie it to the second, the third to the fourth, and so on.
4-157. To keep the rows even and to regulate the size of the mesh, tie a guideline to the trees. Isolated persons should position the guideline on the opposite side of the net they are working on. Move the guideline down after completing each row. The lines will always hang in pairs and isolated persons always tie a cord from one pair to a cord from an adjoining pair. Continue tying rows until the net is the desired width. Thread a suspension line casing along the bottom of the net to strengthen it. Use the gill net as shown in figure 4-29. Angling the gill net will help to reduce the amount of debris that may accumulate in the net. Check it frequently.
Fish Traps
4-158. There are several methods available for trapping fish to include fish baskets. Fish baskets are constructed by lashing several sticks together with vines into a funnel shape. The top is closed, leaving a hole large enough for the fish to swim through (see figure 4-30).
4-159. Fish traps can also be used to catch saltwater fish, as schools regularly approach the shore with the incoming tide and often move parallel to the shore. Pick a location at high tide and build the trap at low tide. On rocky shores, use natural rock pools. On coral islands, use natural pools on the surface of reefs by blocking the openings as the tide recedes. On sandy shores, use sandbars and the ditches they enclose. Build the trap as a low stall extending outward into the water and forming an angle with the shore.
4-160. Near shallow water (about waist deep) where fish are large and plentiful, they can be speared. To make a spear, cut a long, straight sapling. Sharpen the end to a point or attach a knife, a jagged piece of bone, or sharpened metal. A spear can also be made by splitting the shaft a few inches down from the end and inserting a piece of wood to act as a spreader, then sharpening the two separated halves to points (see figure 4-31 on page 4-41).
4-161. To spear fish, find an area either where fish gather or where there is a fish run. Place the spear point into the water and slowly move it toward the fish. Then, with a sudden push, impale the fish on the stream bottom. Do not try to lift the fish with the spear, as it with probably slip off; hold the spear with one hand and grab and hold the fish with the other. Do not throw the spear, especially if the point is a knife. An isolated person cannot afford to lose a knife in a survival situation. Be alert to the problems caused by light refraction when looking at objects in the water. Aim lower than the object, usually at the bottom of the fish.
4-162. At night, in an area with high fish density, use a light to attract fish. Then, armed with a machete or similar weapon, an isolated person can gather fish using the backside of the blade to strike them. Do not use the sharp side of the weapon as it will cut the fish in two pieces and one piece of the fish may be lost.
Poison
4-163. Poison may also be used to catch fish. Poison works quickly and allows an isolated person to remain concealed while it takes effect. It also enables an isolated person to catch several fish at one time. When using fish poison, be sure to gather all of the affected fish, because many dead fish floating downstream could arouse suspicion. Some plants that grow in warm regions of the world contain rotenone, a substance that stuns or kills cold-blooded animals but does not harm persons who eat the animals. The best place to use rotenone, or rotenone-producing plants, is in ponds or the headwaters of small streams containing fish. Rotenone works quickly on fish in water 70° F (21° C) or above. The fish rise helplessly to the surface. It works slowly in water 50 to 70° F (10 to 21° C) and is ineffective in water below 50° F (10° C). The following plants, used as indicated, will stun or kill fish (see figures 4-32a on page 4-42 and 4-32b, on page 4-43):
- Anamirta cocculus. This woody vine grows in southern Asia and on islands of the South Pacific. Crush the bean-shaped seeds and throw them in the water.
- Croton tiglium. This shrub or small tree grows in waste areas on islands of the South Pacific. It bears seeds in three angled capsules. Crush the seeds and throw them into the water.
- Barringtonia. These large trees grow near the sea in Malaya and parts of Polynesia. They bear a fleshy one-seeded fruit. Crush the seeds, bark, and throw them into the water.
- Derris eliptica. This large genus of tropical shrubs and woody vines is the main source of commercially produced rotenone. Grind the roots into a powder and mix with water. Throw a large quantity of the mixture into the water.
- Duboisia. This shrub grows in Australia and bears white clusters of flowers and berrylike fruit. Crush the plants and throw them into the water.
- Tephrosia. This species of small shrubs, which bears bean-like pods, grows throughout the tropics. Crush or bruise bundles of leaves and stems and throw them into the water.
- Lime. Lime can be acquired from commercial sources and in agricultural areas that use large quantities of it. It can also be produced burning coral or seashells. Throw the lime into the water.
- Nut husks. Crush green husks from butternuts or black walnuts. Throw the husks into the water.
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