Most common global plants to procure

4-64. Cattail. Underground stems (rhizomes) are high in starch and can be gathered year round. They can be eaten raw by chewing the central starchy core after the spongy surrounding tissue is removed. When boiled the entire rhizome can be eaten. Young shoots, green flowers, yellow pollen and the white inner leaves of immature stems in spring and early summer are also provide nutrition to the isolated person.

4-65. Palms. Globally there are approximately 2600 species found in temperate, desert, and tropical climates. Palm hearts (the part of the plant or tree form which the leaves branch) are often sweet, containing starch that provide energy. Also, palm fruit including coconuts and dates.

4-66. Ferns. There are over 10,000 species globally with only a couple considered mildly toxic. Fiddleheads, the young unrolling fern fronds have the appearance of the end of a violin. You can eat Fiddleheads raw although they taste better cooked. Rhizomes store starch energy reserves and many ferns can be used to expel stomach and intestinal worms.

4-67. Bamboo. Over 1200 species are found globally and is the largest of all grasses. Young shoots (rhizomes) are edible and have the most nutritional value, use leaves and stems as fillers. All other grasses are edible.

Seaweed

4-68. Seaweed is a form of marine algae found on or near ocean shores. There are also some edible freshwater varieties. Seaweed is a valuable source of iodine, other minerals, and vitamin C. Large quantities of seaweed in an unaccustomed stomach can produce a severe laxative effect. The following lists various types of edible seaweed:

Dulse (rhodymenia palmata).
Green seaweed (ulva lactuca).
Irish moss (chondrus crispus).
Kelp (alaria esculenta).
Laver (porphyra species).
Mojaban (sargassum fulvellum).
Sugar wrack (laminaria saccharina).

4-69. When gathering seaweed for food, find living plants attached to rocks or floating free. Seaweed washed onshore any length of time may be spoiled or decayed. Dry freshly harvested seaweed for later use.

4-70. Different types of seaweed are prepared in different ways. Thin and tender varieties of seaweed are sun dried or over a fire until crisp, then crushed and added to soups or broths. Boil thick, leathery seaweeds for a short time to soften them and eat as a vegetable or with other foods. Some varieties can be consumed raw after testing for edibility.

Preparing Plants for Consumption

4-71. Although some plants or plant parts are edible raw, others must be cooked to be edible or palatable. Edible means that a plant or food will provide necessary nutrients to an isolated person. Palatable means that it is pleasing to eat. Many wild plants are edible but barely palatable. It is a good idea to learn to identify, prepare, and eat wild foods.

4-72. Methods used to improve the taste of plant food include soaking, boiling, cooking, or leaching. Leach by crushing the food (for example, acorns), placing it in a strainer, and pouring boiling water through it or immersing it in running water.

4-73. Boil leaves, stems, and buds until tender, changing the water, if necessary, to remove any bitterness.

4-74. Boil, bake, or roast tubers and roots. Drying helps to remove caustic oxalates from some roots like those in the arum family.

4-75. Leach acorns in water, if necessary, to remove the bitterness. Some nuts, such as chestnuts, are good raw, but taste better roasted.

4-76. You can consume many grains and seeds raw until they mature. When they are hard or dry, they may need to be boiled or ground into meal or flour.

4-77. The sap from many trees, such as maples, birches, walnuts, and sycamores, contains sugar. Boil these saps to make syrup for sweetening. It takes about 9 gallons of maple sap to make 1 quart of maple syrup.

Mammals

4-78. There are 5,360 different species of mammals in the world. Mammals are classified under the following nine main categories:

Egg laying mammals (spiny anteaters).
Marsupials (kangaroo).
Insect-eating (rats).
Chiropetra (bats).
Hooved animals (zebras).
Aquatic mammals (dolphins).
Carnivora (lions).
Proboscidea (elephants).
Primates (humans).

4-79. All mammals are edible. However, the polar bear and the bearded seal have toxic amounts of vitamin A in their livers. Mammals are excellent sources of protein and essential amino acids sufficient for the maintenance of life and the repair of damaged tissue. They are the best tasting food source and closest to the normal American diet. There are some drawbacks to obtaining wild mammals as a food source. For example, in a denied area, the enemy may detect any traps and snares used to catch the animals.

4-80. Take caution, mammals have teeth and will bite in self-defense. The bite from a mammal can cause a severe infection. The amount of injury that a mammal can inflict is in direct proportion to its size. Any mother mammal can be extremely aggressive in defense of her young. Any mammal with no route of escape will fight when cornered. The duck-billed platypus, native to Australia and Tasmania, is an egg-laying, semiaquatic mammal that has poisonous claws on its hind legs. Scavenging mammals, such as the coyote, may carry diseases. Isolated persons must be prepared to hunt, shoot, trap, or snare mammals from their environment.

Hunting

4-81. To become successful in hunting, isolated persons must go through a behavioral change and reorganize personal priorities. This means the one and only goal for the present is to kill an animal for food. To kill this animal, the isolated person must mentally become a predator. They must be willing and prepared to undergo stress to hunt down and kill an animal. Because of the type of field expedient weapons, isolated persons are likely to have, it will be necessary to get very close to the animal to immobilize or kill it. This requires considerable stealth and cunning. Knowledge of the animal is also very important. Observe the animal life of the area by studying signs such as trails, droppings, and bedding areas. Isolated persons should understand the following general characteristics of the animals in the area:

The size of the tracks gives a good idea of the size of the animal.
The depth of the tracks indicates the weight of the animal.
Animal droppings provide much information. For example, if it is still warm or slimy, it was made very recently; if there is a large amount scattered around the area, it could well be a feeding or bedding area. The droppings may also indicate what the animal feeds on. Carnivores often have hair and bone in their droppings. Herbivores have coarse portions of the plants they have eaten in their droppings.
Many animals mark their territory by urinating or scraping areas on the ground or trees. These signs could indicate good trap or ambush sites.

4-82. By following those signs, (tracks and droppings), study the feeding, watering, and resting areas of the hunted animals. Well-worn trails often lead to the animal’s watering place. Having made a careful study of all the animal signs, the isolated person is in a much better position to capture it, whether electing to stalk, trap, snare, or lie in wait to shoot it. Wild animals rely entirely upon their senses for their preservation. These senses are smell, vision, and hearing. Humans have lost the keenness of some of their senses such as smelling and hearing.

4-83. To overcome this loss, humans have the ability to reason. As an example, some animals have a fantastic sense of smell, but by approaching, the quarry from a downwind direction will allow you to circumvent their keen sense of smell. The best times to hunt are at dawn and dusk as animals are either leaving or returning to their bedding areas. Both diurnal and nocturnal animals are active at this time. The following are five basic methods of hunting:

Ambush. Ambush is the best method for inexperienced hunters as it involves less skill. The main principle of this method is to wait along a well-used game trail until the quarry approaches within killing range. Morning and evening are usually the best times to hunt. Take care not to disturb the area; always wait downwind. Patience and self-control are necessary to remain motionless.
Stalking. Stalking refers to the stealthy approach toward game. When an animal has been sighted the isolated person proceeds to close the distance using all available cover. Move slowly in order to minimize noise. Quick movements are easily detected by the animals. Always approach from the downwind side and move when the animal’s head is down eating, drinking, or looking in another direction. Blind stalking uses the same techniques as in regular stalking, the main difference being that the isolated person is stalking a position where the animal is expected to be while the animal is not in sight.
Tracking. Tracking is very difficult unless conditions are ideal. This method involves reading all of the signs left behind by the animal, interpreting what the animal is doing, and determining how it can best be killed. The most common signs are trails, beds, urine, droppings, blood, tracks, and feeding signs.
Funneling. Some wild animals can be scared or driven in a direction where other isolated persons or traps have been set. Using this method to funnel the animals into a valley or canyon is a good place to make a drive. More than one person is usually necessary to make a drive.

4-84. Once they have found an animal, isolated persons will need a method of killing the animal. If a firearm is available and firing it will not reveal the isolated person’s position to the enemy, shoot the animal from a safe distance with the firearm. Isolated persons cannot afford to waste ammunition on moving game that is beyond the effective range of the firearm. Wait for the animal to pause and then place an accurate shot to a vital area on the animal. Isolated persons should aim for the brain, spine, lungs, or heart. A hit in these areas is usually fatal. Take the best shot at the broad side of the animal; this also gives a larger point of aim. The shot will spoil any meat around the entry and exit wound; aim for a spot that will spoil the least amount of meat.

4-85. Some larger species of mammals have very thick skulls, and bullets may not fully penetrate through the skull plate. Larger animals may not go down right away; therefore, once the shot is taken, isolated persons should be prepared to track the animal. They may have to follow the animal’s track or blood trail until they find the animal. Ensure the animal is dead before approaching the animal, as it may attack when wounded. Isolated persons can poke the animal in the eye with a large stick to ensure it is safe to approach. Hunting at night will allow the hunter to get closer to animals. A bright flashlight or an improvised torch can blind the animal. If a firearm is not available, an improvised impact weapon, such as a club or a spear, may be used.

Trapping and Snares

4-86. When an isolated person is unarmed or the sound of a rifle shot could be a problem, trapping and snaring is a good alternative. Several well-placed traps have the potential to catch much more game than one isolated person with a rifle is likely to shoot. Traps and snares also allow isolated persons to hunt while they are completing other tasks necessary for recovery.

4-87. Traps and snares work 24 hours a day without anyone needing to be present. Noise from animals attempting to free themselves from a trap is a consideration on how frequently the trap is checked, as well as its placement. A periotic check of the traps and game retrieval, and/or the traps resets are required for a successful hunt. For any type of trap or snare to be effective, isolated persons must—

Be familiar with the species of animal they intend to catch.
Be capable of constructing a proper trap and properly masking their scent.
Not alarm the prey by leaving signs of human presence.

4-88. Isolated persons must determine what species of game are in the area and set traps specifically for those animals in mind. Look for the following:

Runs and trails
Tracks.
Droppings.
Chewed or rubbed vegetation.
Nesting or rooting sites.
Feeding and watering areas.

4-89. Position traps and snares where there is proof that animals pass through; distinguish between a “run” and a “trail.” A trail will show signs of use by several species and will be rather distinct. A run is usually smaller and less distinct and will only contain signs of one species. Isolated persons may construct a perfect snare, but it will not catch anything if haphazardly placed in the woods. Animals have bedding areas, water holes, and feeding areas with trails leading from one to another; place snares and traps around these areas to be effective. In a denied area, trap and snare concealment is important. However, it is equally important not to create a disturbance that will alarm the animal and cause it to avoid the trap.

4-90. If isolated persons must dig, move all fresh dirt away from the area. Most animals will instinctively avoid a pitfall-type trap. Prepare the various parts of a trap or snare away from the site, carry them in, and set them up. Such actions make it easier to avoid disturbing the local vegetation, thereby alerting the prey. Do not use freshly cut, live vegetation to construct a trap or snare. Freshly cut vegetation “bleeds sap” that emits an odor smelled by the prey. It is an alarm signal to the animal.

4-91. Remove or mask the human scent on and around set traps. Although birds do not have a developed sense of smell, nearly all mammals depend on smell even more than on sight. Even the slightest human scent on a trap alarms the prey and causes it to avoid the area. Actually removing the scent from a trap is difficult, but masking it is relatively easy. Use the fluid from the gall and urine bladders of previous kills. Do not use human urine. Mud, particularly from an area with plenty of rotting vegetation, is also effective. Use it to coat hands when handling the trap and to coat the trap when setting it.

4-92. In nearly all parts of the world, animals know the smell of burned vegetation and smoke. It is only when a fire is actually burning that they become alarmed. Therefore, smoking the trap parts is an effective means to mask human scent. If one of the above techniques is not practical, and if time permits, allow a trap to weather for a few days and then set it. Do not handle a trap while it is weathering. When positioning the trap, camouflage it as naturally as possible to prevent detection by the enemy and to avoid alarming the prey.

4-93. Traps or snares placed on a trail or run should use funneling or channelization. To build a channel, construct a funnel-shaped barrier extending from the sides of the trail toward the trap, with the narrowest part nearest the trap. Attempt to stay off the trail or run and construct funneling from the sides in order to limit the amount of scent on the trap or snare site. Channelization should be inconspicuous to avoid alerting the prey. As the animal gets to the trap, it cannot turn left or right and continues into the trap. Few wild animals will back up, preferring to face the direction of travel. Channelization does not have to be an impassable barrier; it only has to be inconvenient for the animal to go over or through the barrier. For best effect, the channelization should reduce the trail’s width to just slightly wider than the targeted animal’s body. Maintain this constriction at least as far back from the trap as the animal’s body length, and then begin widening toward the mouth of the funnel.

Use of Bait

4-94. Baiting a trap or snare increases the chances of catching an animal. When catching fish, isolated persons must bait nearly all the devices. Success with a non-baited trap depends on its placement in a good location. A baited trap can draw animals in. The bait should be something the animal knows. However, this bait should not be so readily available in the immediate area that the animal can get it close by. For example, baiting a trap with corn in the middle of a cornfield would not likely work. Likewise, if corn is not grown in the region, a corn-baited trap may arouse an animal’s curiosity and keep it alerted while it ponders the strange food. Under such circumstances, it may not go for the bait.

4-95. An example of bait that works well on small mammals is the peanut butter from a meal, ready-to-eat ration. Salt is also good bait. When using such bait, scatter bits of it around the trap to give the prey a chance to sample it and develop a craving for it. The animal will then overcome some of its caution before it gets to the trap. If the trap is set and baited for one species but another species takes the bait without being caught, try to determine what the animal was. Then set a proper trap for that animal, using the same bait. Scavenger-type animals may be attracted to remains of previous kills or leftover entrails; these are excellent bait for fishing.

Construction of Traps and Snares

4-96. Traps and snares crush, choke, hang, or entangle the prey. A single trap or snare will commonly incorporate two or more of these principles. The mechanisms that provide power to the trap are usually very simple. The struggling victim, the force of gravity or a bent sapling’s tension provides the power. The heart of any trap or snare is the trigger. When planning a trap or snare, consider how it should affect the prey, what is the source of power, and what will be the most efficient trigger. The answers will help in devising a specific trap for a specific species. Traps are designed to catch and hold or to catch and kill. Snares are traps that incorporate a noose to accomplish either function.

Triggers for Traps and Snares

4-97. Traps and snares crush, choke, hang, or entangle the prey. A single trap or snare will commonly incorporate two or more of these principles. The mechanisms that provide power to the trap are usually very simple. The struggling victim, the force of gravity or a bent sapling’s tension provides the power.

4-98. The heart of any trap or snare is the trigger. When planning a trap or snare, ask yourself how it should affect the prey, what is the source of power, and what will be the most efficient trigger. Your answers will help you devise a specific trap for a specific species. Traps are designed to catch and hold or to catch and kill. Snares are traps that incorporate a noose to accomplish either function. Triggers for trapping mechanisms should be made out of dead seasoned wood that is solid in composition. Avoid green or rotted wood, which may fail, bend or break at a crucial point once the mechanism is set.

4-99. Triggers can be classified as contact triggers that are tripped by the game walks into the trap or snare brushing the trigger tripping the mechanism. Baited triggers put an attractant like meat, or ration peanut butter, or other sweet or aromatic food material that will draw the game into the trap to activate the trigger system. A simple trigger can be made from the natural Y’s of tree branches that create a natural hook that will hold another Y branch in place with friction that can contain the power of the mechanism until the game moves tripping the trigger releasing the of the mechanism activating the trap or snare. Simple triggers can also be made by carving wood to create notches in two pieces of wood that will create two hooks that interconnect the same as the Y’s in the tree branches.

4-100. Triggers can be created utilizing a toggle that is set and held in place and set with creating a leverage point that when the game passes through in either direction the trigger will be tripped. An example of this type of trigger is the H bi-directional trigger system. The H bi-directional trigger is made by driving two stakes in the ground with enough space for the game to pass through. Cut a notch at the top end of the two stakes— they should be cut on opposing sides of the stakes. Place a toggle that has notches that match up to the stakes. Secure a power source like a spring pole and a slip loop to the toggle. The isolated person can also make a trip line to activate a box style trap with improvised cordage. A prop stick holding up a box style trap tied to a trip line is simple and effective when the game hits the trip line in any direction the box will fall trapping the game.

4-101. Leave the bark on the trigger materials used. Camouflage all exposed areas without bark that show white wood with mud. Construct carefully, check that the parts of the trigger fit, and release effectively. The components of the trigger system can be smoked over a smudge fire to de-scent them before being put in place. The scent of burnt wood will generally alarm the game.

4-102. The following are common types of snares that might be devised:

Simple loop snare. A simple snare consists of a noose placed over a trail or den hole and attached to a firmly planted stake. If the noose is some type of cordage placed upright on a game trail, use small twigs or blades of grass to hold it up. Filaments from spider webs are excellent for holding nooses open. Make sure the noose is large enough to pass freely over the animal’s head. As the animal continues to move, the noose tightens around its neck. The more the animal struggles, the tighter the noose gets. This type of snare usually does not kill the animal. Cordage may loosen enough to slip off the animal’s neck; therefore, wire is the best choice for a simple snare (see figure 4-7 on page 4-20).

Apache foot snare. The apache foot snare is an example of a hold- type trap. It is used for large browsers and grazers like deer (see figure 4-8). This snare should be located along game trails, where an obstruction, such as a log, blocks the trail. When animals jump over this obstruction, a very shallow depression is formed where their hooves land. The Apache foot snare should be placed at this depression.

Drag noose snare. Use a drag noose on an animal run. Place forked sticks on either side of the run and lay a sturdy cross member across them. Tie the noose to the cross member and hang it at a height above the animal’s head. (Nooses designed to catch by the head should never be low enough for the prey to step into with a foot.) As the noose tightens around the animal’s neck, the animal pulls the cross member from the forked sticks and drags it along. The surrounding vegetation quickly catches the cross member, and the animal becomes entangled (see figure 4-9 on page 4-21).

Twitch-up snare. A twitch-up is a supple sapling that, when bent over and secured with a triggering device, will provide power to a variety of snares. Select a hickory or other hardwood sapling along the trail. A twitch-up will work much faster and with more force if all branches and foliage are removed. A simple twitch-up snare uses two forked sticks, each with a long and a short leg. Bend the twitch-up and mark the trail below it. Drive the long leg of one forked stick firmly into the ground at that point. Ensure that the cut on the short leg of this stick is parallel to the ground. Tie the long leg of the remaining forked stick to a piece of cordage secured to the twitch-up. Cut the short leg so that it catches on the short leg of the other forked stick. Extend a noose over the trail. Set the trap by bending the twitch-up and engaging the short legs of the forked sticks. When an animal catches its head in the noose, it pulls the forked sticks apart, allowing the twitch-up to spring up and hang the prey (see figure 4-10 on page 4-22).

Note. Do not use green sticks for the trigger. The sap that oozes out could glue the moving parts together.

Squirrel pole noose. A squirrel pole is a long pole placed against a tree in an area showing a lot of squirrel activity (see figure 4-11 on page 4-23). Place several wire nooses along the top and sides of the pole so that a squirrel trying to go up or down the pole will have to pass through one or more of them. Position the nooses (2 to 2 1/4 inches in diameter) about 1 inch off the pole. Place the top and bottom wire nooses 18 inches from the top and bottom of the pole to prevent the squirrel from getting its feet on a solid surface and chewing through the wire. Squirrels are naturally curious. After an initial period of caution, they will try to go up or down the pole and will be caught in the noose. The struggling animal will soon fall from the pole and strangle. Other squirrels will be drawn to the commotion. In this way, several squirrels can be caught. Multiple poles can be placed to increase the catch.

Noosing wand. A noose stick or “noosing wand” is useful for capturing roosting birds or small mammals. It requires a patient operator. This wand is more a weapon than a trap. It consists of a pole (as long as the isolated person can effectively handle) with a slip noose of wire or stiff cordage at the small end. To catch an animal, the noose is slipped over the neck of a roosting bird and pulled tight. It can also be placed over a den hole as the isolated person hides in a nearby blind. When the animal emerges from the den, the isolated person jerks the pole to tighten the noose and thus captures the animal. A stout club may be needed to kill the prey (see figure 4-12).

Treadle spring snare. Use a treadle snare against small game on a trail. Dig a shallow hole in the trail. Then drive a forked stick (fork down) into the ground on each side of the hole on the same side of the trail. Select two straight sticks that span the two forks. Position these two sticks so that their ends engage the forks. Place several sticks over the hole in the trail by positioning one end over the lower horizontal stick and the other on the ground on the other side of the hole. Cover the hole with enough sticks so that the prey must step on at least one of them to set off the snare. Tie one end of a piece of cordage to a twitch-up or to a weight suspended over a tree limb. Bend the twitch-up or raise the suspended weight to determine where to tie the trigger. The trigger should be about 2 inches long. Form a noose with the other end of the cordage. Route and spread the noose over the top of the sticks over the hole. Place the trigger stick against the horizontal sticks and route the cordage behind the sticks so that the tension of the power source will hold it in place. Adjust the bottom horizontal stick so that it will barely hold against the trigger. As the animal places its foot on a stick across the hole, the bottom horizontal stick moves down, releasing the trigger and allowing the noose to catch the animal by the foot. Because of the disturbance on the trail, an animal will be wary; therefore, channelization should be used. To increase the effectiveness of this trap, a small bait well may be dug into the bottom of the hole with bait placed in it to lure animals to the snare (see figure 4-13).

4-103. The deadfall is a trigger used to drop a weight onto a prey and crush it. The type of weight used may vary, but it should be heavy enough to kill or incapacitate the prey immediately. Construct the deadfall using three notched sticks. These notches hold the sticks together in a figure 4 pattern when under tension. Practice making this trigger beforehand; construction requires close tolerances and precise angles (see figure 4-14 on page 4-25).

4-104. Paiute deadfall, The Paiute deadfall is similar to the figure 4-14 deadfall, but uses a piece of cordage and a catch stick. It has the advantage of being easier to set than the figure 4-14. Tie one end of a piece of cordage to the lower end of the diagonal stick. Tie the other end of the cordage to another stick about 2 inches long. This stick is the catch stick. Bring the cord halfway around the vertical stick with the catch stick at a 90-degree angle. Place the bait stick with one end against the drop weight, or a peg driven into the ground, and the other end against the catch stick. When a prey disturbs the bait stick, it falls free, releasing the catch stick. As the diagonal stick flies up, the weight falls, crushing the prey. To increase the effectiveness of this trap, a small bait well may be dug into the bottom of the hole with bait placed in it to lure animals to the snare (see figure 4-15 on page 4-26).

4-105. Bow trap. A bow trap is one of the deadliest traps. It is dangerous to man as well as animals. To construct this trap, build a bow and anchor it to the ground with pegs. Adjust the aiming point as the bow is anchored. Lash a toggle stick to the trigger stick. Two upright sticks driven into the ground hold the trigger stick in place at a point where the toggle stick engages the pulled bowstring. Place a catch stick between the toggle stick and a stake driven into the ground. Tie a tripwire or cordage to the catch stick and route it around stakes and across the game trail where it is tied off. When the prey trips the tripwire, the bow lodges an arrow into it. A notch in the bow serves to help aim the arrow (see figure 4-16 on page 4-27).

Note. Use caution—this is a lethal trap and should only be approached from the rear of the trap.

4-106. Pig spear shaft. To construct a pig spear shaft, select a stout pole about eight feet long. At the smaller end, firmly lash several small stakes. Lash the large end tightly to a tree along the game trail. Tie a length of cordage to another tree across the trail. Tie a sturdy, smooth stick to the other end of the cord. From the first tree, tie a tripwire or cord low to the ground, stretch it across the trail, and tie it to a catch stick. Make a slip ring from vines or other suitable material. Encircle the tripwire and the smooth stick with the slip ring. Emplace one end of another smooth stick within the slip ring and its other end against the second tree. Pull the smaller end of the spear shaft across the trail and position it between the short cord and the smooth stick.

4-107. As the animal trips the tripwire, the catch stick pulls the slip ring off the smooth sticks, releasing the spear shaft that springs across the trail and impales the prey against the tree. (see figure 4-17 on page 4-28)

Note. Use caution—this is a lethal trap and should only be approached from the rear of the trap.

4-108. Bottle trap. A bottle trap is a simple trap for mice and moles. Dig a hole 12 to 18 inches deep that is wider at the bottom than at the top. Make the top of the hole as small as possible. Place a piece of bark or wood over the hole with small stones under it to hold it up 1 to 2 inches off the ground. Mice or moles will hide under the cover to escape danger and fall into the hole. They cannot climb out because of the wall’s backward slope (see figure 4-18).

Note. Use caution when checking this trap—it is an excellent hiding place for snakes.

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