8-38. Many materials are strong enough to use as cordage and lashing, and a number of natural and manmade materials are available in a survival situation. For example, you can make a cotton web belt much more useful by unraveling it. You can then use the string for other purposes such as fishing line, thread for sewing, and lashing. Isolated persons can also use several strands of parachute cord and twist or braid them together to make a rope (see figure 8-8 on page 8-10). Sheets are used in the same fashion. The parachute cord can be broken down into its components of the outer cover and the inner core strands for other purposes such as fishing line, thread for sewing, and lashing.
Natural Cordage Selection
8-39. Before making cordage, conduct a few simple tests to determine the material’s suitability. First, pull on a length of the material to test for strength. Next, twist it between your fingers and roll the fibers together. If it withstands this handling and does not snap apart, then tie an overhand knot with the fibers and gently tighten. If the knot does not break, it will work.
Lashing Material
8-40. Sinew is the best natural material for lashing small objects. Sinew can be obtained from the tendons of large game such as deer. Remove the tendons from the game and dry them completely. Smash the dried tendons so that they separate into fibers. Moisten the fibers and twist them into a continuous strand. If stronger lashing material is needed, the strands can be braided. When sinew is used for small lashings, they do not need knots as the moistened sinew is sticky and it hardens when dry. Another lashing material can be fibers from the inner bark of some trees, such as the linden, elm, hickory, white oak, mulberry, chestnut, and red and white cedar, to make cord. Isolated persons should test the cord to be sure it is strong enough for their purpose. These materials can be made stronger by braiding several strands together.
8-41. Rawhide can be used for larger lashing jobs. Make rawhide from the skins of medium or large game. After skinning the animal, remove any excess fat and any pieces of meat from the skin. Dry the skin completely. It does not need to be stretched as long as there are no folds to trap moisture, and the hair does not have to be removed from the skin. Cut the skin while it is dry. Make cuts about 1/4 inch wide. Start from the center of the hide and make one continuous circular cut, working clockwise to the hide’s outer edge. Soak the rawhide for 2 to 4 hours or until it is soft. Use it wet, stretching it as much as possible while applying it. It will be strong and durable when it dries.
Rucksack Construction
8-42. The materials for constructing a rucksack or pack are almost limitless. Wood, bamboo, rope, plant fiber, clothing, animal skins, canvas, poncho, EVC, and many other materials are used to make a pack. There are several construction techniques for rucksacks. Many are very elaborate, but those that are simple and easy are often the most readily made in a survival situation. Two types of simple to construct packs are the—
- Horseshoe pack. This pack is simple to make and use and relatively comfortable to carry over one shoulder. Lay available square-shaped material, such as a poncho, a blanket, or canvas, flat on the ground. Lay items on one edge of the material. Pad the hard items. Roll the material (with the items) toward the opposite edge and tie both ends securely. Add extra ties along the length of the bundle. The pack can be draped over one shoulder with a line connecting the two ends (see figure 8-9).
- Square pack. This pack is easy to construct if rope or cordage are available. Otherwise, make the cordage first. To make this pack, construct a square frame from bamboo, limbs, or sticks. Size will vary for each person and the amount of equipment carried (see figure 8-10).
Cooking and Eating Utensils
8-43. There are many materials to make equipment for cooking, eating, and storing food. Usually all materials can serve some purpose when in a survival situation.
Bowls
8-44. Use wood, bone, horn, bark, or other similar material to make bowls. To make wooden bowls, use a hollowed out piece of wood that will hold food and enough water to cook. Hang the wooden container over the fire and add hot rocks to the water and food. Remove the rocks as they cool and add more hot rocks until the food is cooked.
CAUTION
Do not use rocks with air pockets, such as limestone and sandstone. They may explode while heating in the fire.
8-45. This method can also be used with containers made of bark or leaves. However, these containers will burn above the waterline unless they are kept or the fire is kept low. A section of bamboo also works very well for cooking. Cut out a section between two sealed joints.
CAUTION
A sealed section of bamboo will explode if heated because of trapped air and water in the section.
Forks, Knives, Spoons, and Chopsticks
8-46. Carve forks, knives, and spoons from no resinous woods so that there is no wood resin aftertaste or the food is not tainted. Non-resinous woods include oak, birch, and other hardwood trees.
Note. Do not use trees that secrete a syrup or resin-like liquid on the bark or when cut.
Pots
8-47. Pots can be made from turtle shells or wood. As described with bowls, using hot rocks in a hollowed out piece of wood is very effective. Bamboo is the best wood for making cooking containers. To use turtle shells, first thoroughly boil the upper portion of the shell, then use it to heat food and water over a flame (see figure 8-11 on page 8-13).
Improvising Pottery
8-48. Pottery has been used in most all areas of the world for storage vessels and cooking pots, plates and bowls. The process for making pottery in a survival situation involves finding a source of clay. Clay is formed through a process of withering granite rock. The isolated person should find clay that is as pure as they can get. The best clay is found near the bends of streams and rivers, where the finest of clay particles usually settle. The isolated person should dig up a portion of clay to be used in the project. The clay will then be left out to dry and made into a powder so the stones and other impurities can be sifted out.
8-49. Once the clay is sifted and turned into a fine powder the isolated person should add in some tempering material to strengthen it. Items for tempering clay include ground up seashells, sand, ground up eggshells and other crushed up pottery that has already been fired. Tempering the clay will keep it from shrinking during the firing process and keep it from cracking.
8-50. After the clay powder is tempered, water can be added to the mix and it can be kneaded to remove all of the air from the mixture. If any air is trapped in the clay, it will expand causing a break when it is fired.
8-51. Perform this process right before you are ready to form the clay. The proper consistency of clay is soft enough to form but firm enough that it will not stick to the fingers. Once the clay reaches the desired consistency the clay can be made into plates, bowls, pots, and other containers. Once the clay is formed into shape it should be left out to dry for several days. Once the clay project is dry rub it with a stone to close any open pours, sealing it and making it water tight, this is known as burnishing the clay.
8-52. Firing dried pottery items makes them more durable. For an improvised clay project made in the field the temperatures will be very low so the items will deteriorate over time but the isolated person should get plenty of use from them and are easily replaceable if they breakdown. To fire the clay cover the item with a thick layer of soil and build a fire on top of it, or build a fire around the outer edge of the item. Ensure not to let the flames touch the project at first and that it heats up slowly over time. Move the fire in closer until it is immersed in the fire and cooking at a high temperature for three to four hours. Take out after it’s cooled off, clean it, and use as necessary for cooking, water, and food storage.
Water Containers
8-53. Make water bottles from the stomachs of larger animals. Thoroughly flush the stomach out with water, and then tie off the bottom. Leave the top open, with some means of fastening it closed. Other items that can be used to hold water include non-lubricated prophylactics and plastic bags.
Weaving a Basket
8-54. Baskets can be weaved to provide for useful applications such as storage of materials, like food water or other materials needing organization, protection and portability. Baskets can also make great fish traps. Baskets are loosely woven so they are excellent for storing food that needs air so that it does not spoil, like wild plants and berries. Many different materials can be used to weave a basket as long as they are flexible. Materials like shoots from a willow or hazel tree, pine or spruce roots, as well as different types of plants and grasses that can be made into cordage. The size of the basket is determined by the items needing to be stored in them.
8-55. To make a basket the isolated person should start with six flexible sticks cut to size to make the ribs or frame work of the basket. Take the six ribs and divide them into two bundles of three. Make a cross three on top of three. Secure the center of the cross with the material the basket is to be weaved out of with three strands of weaving material and a knot. Creating the base of the basket involves spreading the cross into six ribs and alternately weaving the three strands of material up and over one rib then under the next rib all the way around the circle until the base is the desired size. Once this is complete, the sides of the basket can be made by bending the ribs up. Making a small slit in the rib before bending will keep it flexible and keep it from breaking.
8-56. The sides of the basket are constructed by continuing to alternate the pattern using the three strands. If a strand of material runs short or breaks the isolated person can splice in a new piece of material by making a small twist from the end of the old piece to the end of the new piece and weave it in the same pattern and direction as the old strand. Once the basket has reached the desired height, then the ends of the weaving material should be tucked in and the ends of the basket ribs trimmed to size.
Next Page : Appendix A – Survival Knots and Rope